Table 2 Applications of sensor-based phenotyping of PPI

Pathogen signs

Arabidopsis thaliana, Hordeum vulgare

Fusarium graminearum expressing GFP

Zeiss Stemi-C dissecting microscope with a 470 nm excitation filter and 535 nm emission filter

Whole plants (At), detached spikes (Hv)

[26]

Beta vulgaris L.

Cercospora beticola

Hyperspectral microscope (PFD V10E), motorized stage

Individual lesions

[22]

Cereals

Blumeria graminis

Monochrome CCD sensor, 4 channels captured

‘Macrobot’, robotic arm

[21]

Nicotiana benthamiana

Phytophthora infestans expressing RFP

Monochrome camera with filter wheel and excitation lights (PathoScreen imaging system, Phenovation, the Netherlands)

Detached leaves

[28]

Nicotiana tabacum

Tobacco mosaic virus expressing GFP

RGB camera under UV illumination (Blak-Ray Model B 100AP)

Detached leaves

[27]

Phaseolus vulgaris

Pseudomonas syringae pv. phaseolicola expressing lux-eYFP operon

nightOWL LB 983 in vivo imaging system (Berthold Technologies, Germany), confocal laser scanning microscope Zeiss LSM 880

Detached leaves

[34]

Triticum aestivum L.

Fusarium graminearum

X-ray CT, Biomedical Imaging and Therapy beamline (BMIT‐BM, 05B1‐1)

Spikelet

[114]

Vitis spp.

Erysiphe necator

RGB (Nikon D850), automated motorized stage

Individual leaf discs, automated imaging

[20]

Primary metabolism

Arabidopsis thaliana

Pseudomonas syrinae

CF Imager (Technologica Ltd., UK), NPQ, fPSII, Fv/Fm

Individual plants

[149]

Cucumis melo

Podosphaera xanthii

Open FluorCam 700 MF (Photon System Instruments), NPQ, fPSII

Individual leaves

[54]

Hordeum vulgare

Blumeria graminis f. sp. hordei

Chlorophyll Fluorometer IMAGING-PAM M-series (Walz, Germany)

Individual leaves

[150]

Lactuca sativa

Bremia lactucae

Open FluorCam 700 MF (Photon System Instruments), Fv/Fm

Leaf discs

[151]

Nicotiana benthamiana

Pepper mild mottle virus

FluorCam (Photon System Instruments), NPQ, fPSII

Individual leaves

[152]

Olea europaea

Xylella fastidiosa

Micro-hyperspectral imager (VNIR model, Headwall Photonics, USA), 400 – 885 nm, from aircraft 500 m above ground

Orchards

[48]

Oryza sativa

Rhizoctonia solani

Non-imaging NeoSpectra micro handheld spectrometer (SiWare Systems, Canada), 1348–2551 nm

Individual leaf spots (non-imaging)

[61]

Solanum tuberosum

Phytophthora infestans, Alternaria solani

Non-imaging field spectrometer SVC HR-1024i (350–2500 nm) (Spectra Vista Corporation, USA)

Individual leaf spots (non-imaging)

[153]

Secondary metabolism

Beta vulgaris

Cercospora beticola

SWIR spectral camera, 970–2500 nm (HySpex SWIR-320 m-e line camera, Norsk Elektro Optikk A/S, Norway)

Detached leaves

[154]

Citrus sinensis, Citrus paradisi

Candidatus Liberibacter spp.

Non-imaging handheld Raman spectrometer (Resolve spectrometer equipped with 831-nm laser source, Agilent, USA)

Detached leaves

[86, 87, 90]

Hordeum vulgare

Blumeria graminis f.sp. hordei

UV line scanner, 250–500 nm (Headwall Photonics)

Detached leaves

[81]

Nicotiana benthamiana

Pepper mild mottle virus

Excitation with xenon-lamp + BP 340/75, imaging with CCD camera + BP 440/20 and BP 520/20

Individual leaves

[152]

Triticum aestivum

Puccinia triticina, Blumeria graminis f. sp. tritici

Non-imaging fiber-optic fluorescence spectrometer (IOM GmbH, Germany) combined with 337 nm pulsed N2 laser

Individual leaf spots (non-imaging)

[73]

Vitis vinifera

Plasmopara viticola

Macroscope (AZ100 multizoom, Nikon), ex. BP 340/26 and em. LP 371

Leaf parts

[69]

Necrosis and chlorosis

Arabidopsis thaliana

Pseudomonas syringae

RGB (Nikon D5200 DSLR)

Seedlings growing in well-plates

[117]

Arabidopsis thaliana

Sclerotinia sclerotiorum

RGB (USB camera, full HD 1080p) controlled by Raspberry Pi 3 Model B motherboards

Detached leaves

[115]

Beta vulgaris

Cercospora beticola

RGB (camera Baumer HXG-40), multispectral camera (6 bands of 10 nm between 450 and 850 nm, AIRPHEN)

Phenomobile 1, 50 distance to canopy top (RGB), hexacaopter (multispectral)

[119]

Triticum aestivum

Mycosphaerella graminicola

RGB (flatbed scanner)

Detached leaves collected from field trial

[23]

Zea mays

Setosphaeria turcica

RGB

Drone, 6 m above ground

[118, 120]

Thermal energy dissipation

Cucumis sativus L.

Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cucumerinum

FLIR SC620

Individual leaves

[123]

Ipomoea batatas L.

Sweet potato feathery mottle virus (SPFMV), Sweet potato chlorotic stunt virus (SPCSV)

Top-view thermal camera (FLIR A615), PlantScreen conveyor system, NaPPI, Helsinki

Whole plant

[132]

Nicotiana tabacum L.

Tobacco mosaic virus (TMV)

Infrared imager (Agema THV900LW), Cartesian positioning system in imaging chamber

Leaves

[131]

Olea europaea L.

Verticillium dahliae

Temperature sensor (Apogee IRR-P), Fixed 1 m above canopy

Single tree canopy

[129]

Olea europaea L.

Verticillium dahliae

Broad-band thermal camera (FLIR SC655) on crewed aircraft

3000 ha, spatial resolution = 62 cm

[130]

Structural changes

Capsicum annuum

Stemphylium lycopersici

Laboratory-OCT system, 4096-pixel line scan camera (spl4096-140 km, Basler)

Single leaves

[134]

Malus domestica

Marssonina coronaria

Backpack-based OCT system, 2048-pixel line scan camera (spL2048-140 km, Basler, Germany)

Single leaves

[133]

Solanum tuberosum

Streptomyces scabies

Medical X-ray CT scanner (Toshiba Xvision high-resolution CT scanner)

Single plants

[135]

Triticum aestivum

Fusarium graminearum

Synchrotron-based phase contrast X-ray imaging with the Biomedical Imaging and Therapy beamline (BMIT‐BM, 05B1‐1) at the Canadian Light Source

Single excised wheat spikes

[114]