Fig. 1

Photographs of the FPM technique (a-e) and gas exchange measurements in a flooded field (f). a Tillers were first cut under field water; b tillers were immediately transferred to airless distilled water, and a second-cut was created under water; c tillers were re-cut under airless distilled water after removing all the non-target region; d leaves were illuminated using a LED light source before performing gas exchange measurement (photosynthetic photo flux density = 1500 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹); e sample the fast gas exchange measurement using a Li-6800; f typical gas exchange measurement in a flood rice field. See details in the text